born in 1914

1 to be born (venir al mundo) (niño, animal).

al nacer at birth

¿dónde naciste? — nací en Brasil where were you born? — I was born in Brazil

nacer de/en to be born of/in

nacer de familia humilde to be born into a poor family

nacer para algo to be born for something

ha nacido cantante she's a born singer

no he nacido ayer (figurative) I wasn't born yesterday

volver a nacer (figurative) to have a lucky escape

Nací libre I was born free.

2 to grow (surgir) (pelo).

3 to come to life.

4 to be hatched, to hatch.

5 to be born to.

Nos nació un hijo A son was born to us.

* * *

(c changes to zc before a and o)

Present Indicative

nazco, naces, nace, nacemos, nacéis, nacen.

Present Subjunctive

nazca, nazcas, nazca, nazcamos, nazcáis, nazcan.

Imperative

nace (tú), nazca (él/Vd.), nazcamos (nos.), naced (vos.), nazcan (ellos/Vds.).

* * *

1) to be born

2) rise

* * *

1. VI

1) [persona, animal] to be born; [ave, insecto, reptil] to hatch

- ¡oye, que no nací ayer!

- nacer con estrella

- nacer de pie

- nadie nace enseñado

- nacer parado

- volver a nacer

- unos nacen con estrella y otros estrellados

2) [planta] [gen] to sprout, bud; (=aparecer) to come up; [pelo, plumas] to grow, sprout

3) [estrella, sol] to rise; [día] to dawn

4) [agua] to spring up, appear, begin to flow; [camino] to begin, start (de from) (en in)

5) [revolución, miedo] to spring (de from)

6)

nacerse

* * *

verbo intransitivo

1)

a) niño/animal to be born

b) pollito/insecto to hatch

c) hoja/rama to sprout

d) río to have its source; carretera to start

e) pelo/plumas to grow

2)

a) ( surgir)

b) (liter) ( iniciarse)

* * *

= be born, spring, come into + the world, see + the light of day.

Ex. When using a 32-entry miniature catalog it is not necessary to know that I was born in 1914 to differentiate me from 31 other entries.

Ex. My point is that all literature, every example we can think of, depends for its existence on the tradition out of which it springs -- even the most avant of the avant-garde.

Ex. No one comes into the world already disposed for or against words in print.

Ex. The article 'OSI: will it ever see the light of day?' concludes that the promise of OSI has been bold and ambitious but that its delivery has been significantly delayed beyond its initial projections = El artículo "OSI: ¿ verá alguna vez la luz del día?" concluye que la promesa de OSI ha sido osada y ambiciosa pero que su publicación se ha visto retrasada considerablemente por encima de las previsiones iniciales.

----

* al nacer = at birth.

* bebé que nace muerto = stillbirth [still-birth].

* conforme + nacer = at birth.

* en cuanto + nacer = at birth.

* grandes robles nacen de pequeñas bellotas = great oaks from little acorns grow.

* nacer prematuramente = be prematurely born.

* nacido en = born in.

* niños nacidos fuera del matrimonio = children born out of the wedlock.

* persona nacida después del baby boom = baby buster.

* persona nacida durante el baby boom = baby boomer.

* peso al nacer = birthweight.

* volver a nacer = have + a lucky escape, have + a narrow escape.

* vuelto a nacer = born again.

* * *

verbo intransitivo

1)

a) niño/animal to be born

b) pollito/insecto to hatch

c) hoja/rama to sprout

d) río to have its source; carretera to start

e) pelo/plumas to grow

2)

a) ( surgir)

b) (liter) ( iniciarse)

* * *

* * *

nacer [E3 ]

1 «niño/cordero/gato» to be born

¿dónde naciste? where were you born?

pesaba tres kilos al nacer she weighed three kilos at birth

nacer antes de tiempo to be born prematurely, to be premature

el niño nació muerto the child was stillborn

nacer DE algn to be born TO sb

nació en el Perú, de padres españoles she was born in Peru to o of Spanish parents

yo no nací para esta clase de trabajo I wasn't born to do this kind of work

nació para (ser) músico he was born to be a musician

naciste/nació parado (Chi, Ven fam); you have/he has the luck of the devil ( colloq)

no nací/nació ayer I/he wasn't born yesterday

volver a nacer or nacer de nuevo to have a lucky escape, be lucky to come out alive

2 «pollito/insecto» to hatch

3 «hoja/rama» to sprout

le han nacido nuevas flores a la planta the plant has produced o grown some new flowers

4 «río» to rise, have its source; «carretera» to start

la pinza nace debajo de la manga the dart starts under the sleeve

5 «pelo/plumas» to grow

le nacieron alas he sprouted wings

ya le volverá a nacer el pelo his hair will soon grow back

(surgir) «sentimiento»: una gran amistad nació entre ellos a great friendship grew o sprang up o developed between them

a ella no le nace ser amable con la gente being nice to people doesn't come naturally to her

no me nace ser simpático con él I find it difficult to be nice to him

2 «problema/situación»: nacer DE algo; to arise o spring FROM sth

nace de su inseguridad this arises o springs from his insecurity

3 ( liter) (iniciarse) nacer A algo to be awakened TO sth ( liter)

nacer al amor to be awakened to love, to experience love for the first time

* * *

a) [niño/animal] to be born;

◊ ¿dónde naciste? where were you born?;

b) [pollito/insecto] to hatch

c) [hoja/rama] to sprout

d) [ río] to have its source;

e) [pelo/plumas] to grow

◊ nació de ella invitarlo it was her idea to invite him

* * *

nacer vi

1. [niño, animal] to be born;

al nacer at birth;

pesó al nacer 3.700 g he weighed 3.7 kg at birth;

¿dónde naciste? – nací en Brasil where were you born? – I was born in Brazil;

nacer de familia humilde to be born into a poor family;

nació de padres italianos she was born of Italian parents, her parents were Italian;

nacer para algo to be born for sth;

ha nacido cantante she's a born singer;

tú has nacido cansado you were born lazy;

no he nacido ayer I wasn't born yesterday;

nació con un pan debajo del brazo the birth of the child was a blessing for the family;

nació o [m5] ha nacido con una flor en el culo he has the luck of the devil;

el que ha nacido en petate, siempre anda apestando a tule you can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear;

nacer parado to be born lucky;

unos nacen con estrella y otros nacen estrellados fortune smiles on some people and not on others;

volver a nacer to have a lucky escape

2. [ave, reptil] to hatch (out)

3. [planta] to sprout, to begin to grow

4. [pelo] to grow

5. [río] to rise, to have its source

6. [sol, luna] to rise

7. [originarse]

desde aquel momento, nació una gran amistad entre los dos that moment was the beginning of a close friendship between them;

su nerviosismo nace de su inseguridad his nervousness stems from his insecurity;

la revolución nació en el norte del país the revolution started in the north of the country;

el Renacimiento nació en Italia the Renaissance had its origins in Italy

* * *

1 be born; de un huevo hatch

2 de una planta sprout

3 de un río, del sol rise

4 ( surgir) arise (de from)

* * *

nacer {48} vi

1) : to be born

nací en Guatemala: I was born in Guatemala

no nació ayer: he wasn't born yesterday

2) : to hatch

3) : to bud, to sprout

4) : to rise, to originate

nacer para algo : to be born to be something

volver a nacer : to have a lucky escape

* * *

nacer vb

1. (persona, animal) to be born

2. (planta) to grow [pt. grew; pp. grown]

3. (pollito) to hatch

медведь;
медведица - *s cub медвежонок - * driver вожак медведя медведь, неуклюжий человек - * sport шумная, грубая игра /забава/ - to play the * вести себя как медведь, быть грубым /неуклюжим, бестактным/ - what a *! что за медведь!, ну и грубиян! медвежий мех десятилетний бойскаут( биржевое) (профессионализм) спекулянт, играющий на понижение, "медведь" - * market рынок с тенденцией на понижение - * operation /speculation/ спекуляция на понижение - * to sell a * играть на понижение;
продать то, чего не имеешь, надуть - go to a * играть на понижение ручной дыропробивной пресс, медведка "козел" > Great B. Большая Медведица (созвездие) > as cross as a * with a sore head зол как черт;
смотрит зверем > you must not sell the skin till you have shot the * нельзя делить шкуру неубитого медведя > to take a * by the tooth лезть в медвежье логово /в пекло/ > had it been a* it would have bitten you (устаревшее) ты не видишь того, что лежит у тебя под носом > to be a* for punishment не бояться лишений, дурного обращения и т. п.;
быть закаленным;
идти напролом к цели, добиваться своего, несмотря ни на какие трудности - to have a* by the tail (американизм) дразнить медведя, бесцельно рисковать, неразумно подвергать себя опасности - loaded for * (американизм) (сленг) готов к драке, на взводе (биржевое) (профессионализм) играть на понижение переносить, перевозить - the ship bore him to a distant country корабль унес его далеко от родины - the mules *ing the baggage remained behind мулы с кладью остались позади( книжное) носить, нести (обыкн. что-л. тяжелое) - to * a banner нести знамя - to come *ing rich gifts прийти с богатыми дарами гнать, нести (тж. * along) - the crowd bore us along толпа увлекла нас за собой - the boat was borne backward by the wind ветер отнес лодку назад напрвляться, поворачиваться;
держаться - to * east двигаться на восток - to * before the wind (морское) спускаться под ветер - to * a course( морское) прокладывать курс( по карте) - when you come to the bridge * to the right когда подойдете к мосту, поверните направо - the road *s to the right дорога отклоняется вправо( книжное) находиться, простираться (о местности и т. п.) - the land *s south of us земля к югу от нас наводить (орудие и т. п.) - to bring /to put/ a telescope to * on smth навести телескоп на что-л. - to bring one's mind to * on smth сосредоточить все свое внимание на чем-л. иметь, нести на себе - to * the marks of smth. иметь признаки чего-л. - to * an evil look выглядеть зловеще - the monument bore an inscription на памятнике была надпись - the letter *s his signature на письме стоит его подпись - what date does that letter *? каким числом помечено это письмо? иметь, обладать - to * a name носить имя - to * an office занимать пост - to * rule /sway/ держать в своих руках власть, властвовать - to * a good character иметь хорошую репутацию, пользоваться доброй славой выдерживать, нести тяжесть, нагрузку (тж. * up) - his shoulders can * a heavy load он может нести на плечах тяжелый груз - will the ice * today? достаточно ли крепкий лед сегодня? - * steady! (морское) так держать! (on, upon) опираться (на что-л.) ;
стоять( на чем-л.) ;
нажимать, давить - a beam *ing on /upon/ two uprights брус, опирающийся на два столба - the whole building *s on these columns эти колонны поддерживают все здание - to * hard /heavily/ on наваливаться, давить на - the old man was *ing heavily on his stick старик тяжело опирался на трость - don't * hard on the pencil - it will break не нажимай сильно на карандаш - он сломается - to bring all one's strength to * on a lever изо всех сил навалиться /надавить/ на рычаг - to bring pressure to * on smb. оказывать давление на кого-л. иметь отношение к( чему-л.), быть связанным с (чем-л.) - the fact does not * on the subject этот факт не имеет отношения к делу - a resolution bearing on the matter резолюция по этому вопросу допускать, разрешать - he spends more than his salary can * он тратит больше, чем позволяет его жалованье - your words * only one interpretation ваши слова можно истолковать только так - there are passages in the book that will * skipping в книге есть места, которые вполне можно пропустить - his langauge does not * repeating его язык не для приличного общества (p.p. тж. born) рождать, производить на свет - borne by Eve, born of Eve рожденный Евой - she has borne him five children она родила ему пятерых детей - I was born in 1922 я родился в 1922 году приносить плоды - the trees * fruit деревья приносят плоды - his efforts bore fruit его усилия увенчались успехом - these shares * 5 per cent interest эти акции приносят 5% прибыли держаться, вести себя - to * oneself with dignity вести себя с достоинством > to * one's head high высоко нести голову, держаться независимо /смело/ терпеть, выносить, выдерживать (боль, пытки и т. п.) - to * pain терпеть боль - to * torture вынести /выдержать/ пытку - to * strain переносить напряжение переносить (операцию и т. п.) - he bore the operation satiafactorily он удовлетворительно перенес операцию - how do you * air travel? как вы переносите самолет? обыкн. в отрицательных или вопросительных предложениях: терпеть, выносить;
мириться (с чем-л.) - I cannot * him я его терпеть не могу /не выношу/ - I cannot * the sight of him видеть его не могу - I cannot * to see it мне тяжело на это смотреть - the charge will not * examination обвинение несостоятельно /совершенно необоснованно/ - this *s no comparison with... это не выдерживает сравнения с... нести (расходы, убытки - to * losses нести убытки /ущерб/ - let him * the expenses пусть он возьмет расходы на себя /расплачивается/ давать (показания) - to * evidence /testimony, witness/ давать свидетельские показания, свидетельствовать - he will * witness that... он может засвидетельствовать, что... - to * false witness (against) лжесвидетельствовать - thou shalt not * false witness against the neighbour( библеизм) не послушествуй на друга свидетельства ложна питать, таить( чувства и т. п.) - to * malice таить злобу - to * goodwill относиться доброжелательно - the love she bore him любовь, которую она к нему питала распространять( слухи и т. п.) ;
разносить слухи, распространять сплетни - to * good news принести добрые вести иметь - to * resemblance иметь сходство - to * relation иметь отношение - it *s no relation to the matter это не имеет отношения к делу > to bear against smth. упираться во что-л.;
плотно прилегать к чему-л. > to be borne in on /upon/ smb. стать ясным, понятным кому-л. > it was gradually borne in upon him that... до него постепенно дошло, что..., мало-помалу он понял /осознал/, что... > to bear with smb., smth. терпеливо относиться к кому-л., чему-л., мириться с кем-л., чем-л. > * with me будьте ко мне снисходительны > to * arms носить оружие;
служить в армии;
иметь или носить герб > to * arms against smb. поднять оружие на кого-л., восстать с оружием в руках против кого-л. > to * a part in smth. принимать участие в чем-л. > to * in mind иметь в виду, помнить, учитывать, принимать во внимание > to * company составлять компанию > to * a hand помогать, содействовать > * a hand! помогите!;
(морское) навались!, взяли! (команда) > * for action! к бою!( команда) > to * smb. in hand держать кого-л. в руках;
(устаревшее) обманывать, водить кого-л. за нос > to * one's age well выглядеть моложаво;
не чувствовать бремени лет > to * the brunt см. brunt > to * smb. a grudge иметь зуб против кого-л., затаить злобу против кого-л. > to * and forbear проявлять терпение и выдержку, обладать ангельским терпением > born yesterday наивный, доверчивый;
как будто только вчера на свет родился > in all one's born days за всю свою жизнь (диалектизм) ячмень (диалектизм) наволочка

~ away выиграть (приз, кубок и т. п.) ;
выйти победителем;
to be borne away быть захваченным, увлеченным

bear выдерживать;
нести груз, тяжесть;
поддерживать, подпирать;
will the ice bear today? достаточно ли крепок лед сегодня? ~ грубый, невоспитанный человек;
to play the bear вести себя грубо ~ рефл. держаться;
вести себя ~ дыропробивной пресс, медведка ~ бирж. играть на понижение ~ играть на понижение ~ метал. козел ~ медведь ~ нести ~ (bore;
borne) носить;
нести;
переносить, перевозить ~ опираться (on) ~ перевозить ~ переносить ~ питать, иметь (чувство и т. п.) ~ приносить ~ простираться ~ (р. p. born) рождать, производить;
to bear children рожать детей;
to bear fruit приносить плоды;
born in 1919 рождения 1919 года ~ спекулянт, играющий на понижение ~ бирж. спекулянт, играющий на понижение ~ терпеть, выносить;
I can't bear him я его не выношу ~ мор. разг. швабра (для мытья палубы) ~ астр.: Great (Little, Lesser) Bear Большая (Малая) Медведица

to ~ company ухаживать;
to bear comparison выдерживать сравнение;
to bear a hand участвовать;
помогать;
to bear hard (on smb.) подавлять( кого-л.)

to ~ in mind помнить;
иметь в виду;
to bear a part принимать участие

to ~ a resemblance быть похожим, иметь сходство;
to bear to the right etc. принять вправо

to ~ arms иметь или носить герб to ~ arms носить оружие;
служить в армии;
to bear arms (against smb.) поднять оружие (на кого-л.), восстать (против кого-л.) to ~ arms носить оружие;
служить в армии;
to bear arms (against smb.) поднять оружие (на кого-л.), восстать (против кого-л.)

~ attr.: ~ pool бирж. объединение спекулянтов, играющих на понижение

~ away выиграть (приз, кубок и т. п.) ;
выйти победителем;
to be borne away быть захваченным, увлеченным

~ (р. p. born) рождать, производить;
to bear children рожать детей;
to bear fruit приносить плоды;
born in 1919 рождения 1919 года

to ~ company составлять компанию, сопровождать to ~ company ухаживать;
to bear comparison выдерживать сравнение;
to bear a hand участвовать;
помогать;
to bear hard (on smb.) подавлять (кого-л.) company: ~ общество;
компания;
to bear (или to keep) (smb.) company составлять (кому-л.) компанию, сопровождать (кого-л.)

to ~ company ухаживать;
to bear comparison выдерживать сравнение;
to bear a hand участвовать;
помогать;
to bear hard (on smb.) подавлять (кого-л.)

~ down влиять;
bear in: to be borne in (on smb.) становиться ясным, понятным (кому-л.) ~ down мор. подходить по ветру ~ down преодолевать ~ down устремляться( upon - к) ;
набрасываться, нападать( upon - на кого-л.)

~ (р. p. born) рождать, производить;
to bear children рожать детей;
to bear fruit приносить плоды;
born in 1919 рождения 1919 года fruit: fruit плод;
to bear fruit плодоносить

to ~ company ухаживать;
to bear comparison выдерживать сравнение;
to bear a hand участвовать;
помогать;
to bear hard (on smb.) подавлять (кого-л.)

~ down влиять;
bear in: to be borne in (on smb.) становиться ясным, понятным (кому-л.)

to ~ in mind помнить;
иметь в виду;
to bear a part принимать участие

~ market бирж. рынок с понижательной тенденцией market: bear ~ рынок, на котором наблюдается тенденция к снижению курсов bear ~ рынок с понижением фондовой конъюнктуры

~ off отклоняться;
bear on касаться, иметь отношение (к чему-л.) ;
bear out подтверждать;
подкреплять;
поддерживать

~ off отклоняться;
bear on касаться, иметь отношение (к чему-л.) ;
bear out подтверждать;
подкреплять;
поддерживать to ~ up for взять направление на;
bear upon = bear on;
bear with относиться терпеливо (к чему-л.) ;
мириться (с чем-л.)

~ off отклоняться;
bear on касаться, иметь отношение (к чему-л.) ;
bear out подтверждать;
подкреплять;
поддерживать

~ attr.: ~ pool бирж. объединение спекулянтов, играющих на понижение

to ~ the signature иметь подпись, быть подписанным;
to bear testimony, to bear witness свидетельствовать, показывать, давать показания testimony: bear ~ давать показания под присягой

to ~ the signature иметь подпись, быть подписанным;
to bear testimony, to bear witness свидетельствовать, показывать, давать показания signature: ~ подпись;
to bear the signature (of) быть подписанным (кем-л.) ;
over the signature за подписью

to ~ a resemblance быть похожим, иметь сходство;
to bear to the right etc. принять вправо

~ up держаться стойко ~ up поддерживать;
подбадривать ~ up мор. спускаться (по ветру)

to ~ up for взять направление на;
bear upon = bear on;
bear with относиться терпеливо (к чему-л.) ;
мириться (с чем-л.)

to ~ up for взять направление на;
bear upon = bear on;
bear with относиться терпеливо (к чему-л.) ;
мириться (с чем-л.)

to ~ up for взять направление на;
bear upon = bear on;
bear with относиться терпеливо (к чему-л.) ;
мириться (с чем-л.)

to ~ the signature иметь подпись, быть подписанным;
to bear testimony, to bear witness свидетельствовать, показывать, давать показания

~ (р. p. born) рождать, производить;
to bear children рожать детей;
to bear fruit приносить плоды;
born in 1919 рождения 1919 года

bridled ~ юнец, путешествующий с гувернером

cross( или sulky, surly) as a ~ = зол как черт

enter into ~ transactions бирж. играть на понижение

~ астр.: Great (Little, Lesser) Bear Большая (Малая) Медведица

had it been a ~ it would have bitten you = вы ошиблись, обознались;
(оказалось) не так страшно, как вы думали

~ терпеть, выносить;
I can't bear him я его не выношу

~ грубый, невоспитанный человек;
to play the bear вести себя грубо

polar ~ белый медведь

sea ~ зоол. белый медведь sea ~ зоол. морской котик

to sell the ~'s skin before one has caught the ~ делить шкуру неубитого медведя

to take a ~ by the tooth без нужды подвергать себя опасности, лезть на рожон

Teddy ~ медвежонок (детская игрушка)

~ down влиять;
bear in: to be borne in (on smb.) становиться ясным, понятным (кому-л.)

bear выдерживать;
нести груз, тяжесть;
поддерживать, подпирать;
will the ice bear today? достаточно ли крепок лед сегодня?

1) носить, нести; переносить

2) книжн.

а) нести на себе, иметь (знаки, признаки, следы)

б) носить (имя, титул)

в) питать, испытывать ( чувство)

г) держать ( в голове); удерживать ( в памяти)

3) касаться, иметь отношение (к кому-л. / чему-л.)

4) ( bear (up)on) (отрицательно) сказываться на (ком-л. / чём-л.)

5) = bear up выдерживать нагрузку; нести груз, тяжесть; поддерживать, подпирать

6) нести (расходы, ответственность)

7) = bear up выносить, выдерживать ( испытания)

8) терпеть, выносить ( обычно в отрицательных или вопросительных предложениях)

9) ( bear with) относиться терпеливо к (чему-л.); мириться с (чем-л.)

10) опираться (на что-л.); нажимать, давить

11)

а) простираться (куда-л.); находиться (где-л.)

б) двигаться (в каком-л. направлении)

12) наводить ( орудие)

13) давать ( показания)

14) книжн. распространять; передавать ( информацию)

15) прич. прош. вр. born рождать, производить на свет

- bear children

16) приносить ( плоды)

17) ( bear oneself) вести себя, держаться

•

- bear away

••

- bear arms

1) медведь

- brown bear

2) = teddy bear плюшевый медвежонок ( детская игрушка)

3) неуклюжий, грубый человек

4) эк. биржевой спекулянт, играющий на понижение, "медведь"

5) тех. дыропробивной пресс, медведка

6) метал. козёл

7) амер.; разг. полицейский

8) ( the Bear) разг. Россия

••

- Little Bear

(1914-2001)

   Career military officer, key personality, and authority in transition from dictatorship to democracy, and president of the republic. Born in the remote, poor, Trás-Os-Montes district, Costa Gomes was trained as an army officer and gained experience and promotions in many postings in Portugal's overseas empire from Macau, China, to Angola and Mozambique. As a lieutenant colonel in the post of undersecretary of the army in April 1961, he was implicated in a military coup plot to overthrow Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. Although he was fired, Costa Gomes rebuilt his bridges, was promoted to brigadier general in 1964, and soon was appointed to important commands in the colonial wars in Portuguese Africa: first in Mozambique (1965-69) and then in Angola (1970-72). In September 1972, he returned to Portugal as head of the joint chiefs of staff, a post he kept until he broke with Prime Minister Marcello Caetano in early 1974.

   During the last part of Caetano's governance, General Costa Gomes, in tandem with his senior, more famous and charismatic colleague in arms, General Antônio de Spínola, was involved in activities that led to the organization of a successful military coup on 25 April 1974, which overthrew the 48-year-old Estado Novo. Although younger officers did most of the work organizing this action, Costa Gomes played a key role, including authorizing the publication of the sensational book by General Spínola, Portugal e o Futuro, published only two months before the Revolution of Carnations in February 1974. Spinola's book acknowledged that Portugal had to find a political not a military solution to the wars in her African colonies, and the public reception of the work helped prepare the atmosphere for a bloodless coup.

   After the successful coup by the Armed Forces Movement and the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Costa Gomes was appointed chief of defense staff. When General Spínola resigned in September 1974, Costa Gomes became president, a post he ably filled until June 1976, when General Ramalho Eanes was elected president of the republic. Costa Gomes soon withdrew from the public eye, but in 1981 was promoted to Portugal's highest military rank of marshal.

Les noms de mois et les noms de jours prennent toujours une majuscule en anglais; pour les abréviations des noms de mois et de jours fréquemment utilisées en anglais ⇒ Les mois de l'année et ⇒ Les jours de la semaine.

En anglais parlé, on utilise presque toujours le nombre ordinal (par ex. fifth et non five) pour indiquer le jour du mois; pour les abréviations des nombres ordinaux ⇒ Les nombres.

En anglais, il y a quatre façons d’écrire la date, et trois façons de la dire: ces options sont toutes indiquées pour la première date du tableau suivant. Pour écrire la date, les deux premières façons (May 1st ou May 1) sont acceptées dans tous les pays anglophones. Dans le tableau on utilisera indifféremment l’une ou l’autre de ces deux formes.

Pour dire la date, la première des formes données (May the first) est acceptée partout,

* L’anglais britannique, comme le français, place le chiffre du jour avant celui du mois; l’anglais américain commence par le chiffre du mois.

† AD signifie anno domini (l’année de notre Seigneur).

‡ BC signifie before Christ ( avant Jésus-Christ).

§ Noter que l’anglais utilise les chiffres arabes pour les siècles.

= what’s the date today?

= it’s the tenth

= it’s Monday 10th ( dire Monday the tenth)

= it’s May 10 ( dire it’s the tenth of May)

= see you on the 10th

= it happened on the 10th

= it happened on 10th December ( dire the tenth of December)

= on the 10th of every month

= on Monday May 5, he reached Timbuktu

= from the 10th onwards

= till ou until the 10th

= wait till the 10th

= before May 10 ( dire before May the tenth)

= around 10 May ( dire around the tenth of May)

= from 10th to 16th May (GB) ( dire from the tenth to the sixteenth of May) ou from 10th through 16th May (US) ( dire from the tenth through the sixteenth of May)

Devant les noms de mois et les chiffres des années et des siècles, l’anglais utilise normalement in.

= in May

= I was born in May 1914

= in 1945

= he died in 1616

= Shakespeare (1564-1616) ( dire Shakespeare fifteen sixty-four to sixteen sixteen) ou Shakespeare, b. 1564-d. 1616 ( dire Shakespeare born in fifteen sixty-four and died in sixteen sixteen)

= the 1789 revolution

= the riots of ‘68 ( dire of sixty-eight)

= in May ‘45 ( dire in May forty-five)

= in the fifties ou in the 1950s ( dire in the nineteen fifties)

= in the early fifties

= in the late fifties

= in the 17th century ( dire in the seventeenth century)

= in the early twelfth century

= in the late twelfth century

Le mot century ne peut pas être omis en anglais:

= from the 12th century onwards ( dire from the twelfth century onwards)

= 19th-century novelists ( dire nineteenth century novelists)

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εὐγενής, ές, gen. οῦς (s. γένος; Trag.+; loanw. in rabb.) comp. εὐγενέστερος (Mitt-Wilck. I/2 131, 33f [IV A.D.]).

① pert. to being of high status, well-born, high-born (X., Hell. 4, 1, 7; Philo, De Jos. 106; Jos., Ant. 10, 186; Just.) 1 Cor 1:26. ἄνθρωπός τις εὐ. a certain nobleman Lk 19:12.

② pert. to having the type of attitude ordinarily associated with well-bred persons, noble-minded, open-minded οὗτοι ἦσαν εὐγενέστεροι τῶν ἐν Θεσσαλονίκῃ these were more open-minded than those in Th. Ac 17:11 (cp. Menand. Dysc. 723 [FDanker, NTS 10, ’64, 366f; Cicero, Ad Att. 13, 21, 7; Jos., Ant. 12, 255).—EbNestle, ZNW 15, 1914, 91f.—DELG s.v. γίγνομαι. M-M. TW. Spicq.

- firstly

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[fə:st] n 1 primeiro. 2 começo, princípio. • adj 1 primeiro. 2 primitivo, anterior. 3 em primeiro lugar. 4 principal, fundamental, essencial. • adv 1 antes de tudo. 2 primeiramente. 3 antes. 4 pela primeira vez. 5 preferivelmente. at first inicialmente. at first hand em primeira mão, diretamente. first come, first served quem chega primeiro será atendido primeiro. first day cover envelope no qual são colocados selos comemorativos. first day premium Com ágio de primeiro dia: diferença entre o preço em que novas ações são emitidas e aquele ao qual são vendidas em uma bolsa de valores no primeiro dia após sua emissão. first in first out Com primeiro a entrar, primeiro a sair: sistema de atribuição de valor ao estoque, em que há o pressuposto de que os bens adquiridos em primeiro lugar são também os primeiros a serem usados ou vendidos durante o exercício contábil. First Lord of the Admiralty ministro da Marinha. first of all antes de mais nada. first off a princípio. first things first primeiro as coisas mais importantes. first turning on the left primeira rua à esquerda. First World War Primeira Guerra Mundial (1914-1918). from first to last do começo até o fim. in the first place em primeiro lugar. to come first ter prioridade. to go first viajar de primeira classe. to put someone first tratar alguém com deferência, dar prioridade.

union [ynjɔ̃]

1. feminine noun

   a. ( = alliance) union (PROV) l'union fait la force united we stand, divided we fall

   b. ( = mariage) union

• deux enfants sont nés de cette union two children were born of this union

   c. ( = groupe) association

• l'Union sportive de Strasbourg the Strasbourg sports club

2. compounds

► union de consommateurs consumers' association

► union douanière customs union

► Union européenne European Union

► l'union libre cohabitation

► l'Union soviétique the Soviet Union

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1) ( alliance) union

2) ( association) association

3) ( mariage) union sout, marriage

4) Mathématique union

•

- union douanière

- union libre

- union sacrée

- union sportive

- Union européenne

- Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques

- Union soviétique

••

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* * *

union nf

1 ( alliance) union; union du corps et de l'âme union of mind and body; l'union politique européenne European political union;

2 ( association) association; union de consommateurs consumers' association; union de producteurs association of producers;

3 ( mariage) union sout, marriage; de cette union allaient naître trois fils from this union ou marriage three sons would come;

4 Math union; ‘A union B’ ‘A union B’.

union douanière Écon, Fisc customs union; union économique et monétaire Écon, Fin economic and monetary union; union libre cohabitation; union mystique Relig mystic union; union sacrée united front; former l'union sacrée contre to present a united front against; union sportive, US sports club; Union européenne, UE European Union, EU; Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques Hist Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; Union soviétique Hist Soviet Union.

l'union fait la force Prov united we stand, divided we fall.

[ynjɔ̃] nom féminin

1. [fait de mélanger] union, combination

[mélange] union, integration

2. [solidarité] union, unity

a. [être solidaires] to show ou to present a united front

b. HISTOIRE to unite in the face of the aggressor (in 1914)

3. [harmonie - dans un groupe] harmony ; [ - dans une famille, un couple] closeness

4. [liaison entre un homme et une femme] union

5. [regroupement] union, association

6. GÉOGRAPHIE

(1887-1918)

   Visionary Portuguese painter whose work was the precursor of modern art in Portugal. He was born in Amarante in 1887, into a wealthy family and studied law at Coimbra University. He left Coimbra in 1905, before finishing his law studies, and began studying architecture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Lisbon. He did not find the architecture course stimulating enough and left for Paris in 1906, settling in Montparnasse. At first, he did drawings and caricatures but later dedicated himself to painting. Souza-Cardoso's work can be characterized as impressionist, expressionist, cubist, and futurist. He showed his work in 1910, in Paris, along with Amedeo Modigliani, Constantin Brancusi, and Juan Gris. In 1913, eight of his paintings were displayed at the famous Armory Show in New York City. In 1914, he worked with Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona.

   His time in Spain was ended by the outbreak of the World War I, and he returned to Lisbon, where he began to experiment with new forms of expression. In 1916, he showed 114 cubist works in Oporto and Lisbon. His career was cut short when he contracted pneumonia and died on 25 October 1918. His must famous works are Saut du Lapin (1911), Cabeça (1913), Entrada (1917), and Pintura (1917). In 1935, the Portuguese state established a prize to recognize modernist painters called the "Prémio Souza-Cardoso."

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Joseph Aspdin was the eldest of the six children of Thomas Aspdin, a bricklayer. He became interested in making advanced cements for rendering brickwork and, on 21 October 1824, patented a calcined mixture of limestone, clay and water that he called Portland Cement because he thought it resembled Portland Stone in colour.

Aspdin established his first cement works at Kirkgate in Wakefield in 1825: this was demolished in 1838 due to railway development, and a new works was established in the town in 1843. A year later Joseph Aspdin retired and handed the business over to his elder son James. Meanwhile, William, a younger son of Joseph, had also entered the business of manufacturing cement. Born in Leeds on 23 September 1815, he joined his father's firm at the age of 14, but left in 1841 to set up his own firm at Rotherhithe, London. There he manufactured an improved cement that was better and stronger than Parker's Roman Cement, probably because it contained a higher proportion of clinkered material. Further improvements were made during the following years and new factories were established, first at Northfleet in Kent and later at Gateshead on the south bank of the River Tyne (1853). It is interesting that Sir Marc Brunel later preferred to use William Aspdin's cement in the Thames railway tunnel construction because of its greater strength (see Frost). William Aspdin died at Itzehoe in Germany in 1864.

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SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour

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Bothe studied under Max Planck at the University of Berlin, gaining his doctorate in 1914. After military service during the First World War, he resumed his investigations into nuclear physics and achieved a breakthrough in 1929 when he developed a method of studying cosmic radiation by placing one Geiger counter on top of another. From this he evolved the means of high-speed counting known as "coincidence counting". The following year, in conjunction with Hans Becker, Bothe made a Further stride forward when they identified a very penetrative neutral particle by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles; this was a significant advance towards creating nuclear energy in that the neutral particle was what Chadwick later identified as the neutron.

In 1934 Bothe's achievements were recognized by his appointment as Director of the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, although this was after Planck himself had been deposed because of his Jewish sympathies. Bothe did, however, become primarily involved in Germany's pursuit of the atomic bomb and in 1944 constructed Germany's first cyclotron for accelerating nuclear particles. By that time Germany was faced with military defeat and Bothe was not able to develop his ideas further. Even so, for his work in the field of cosmic radiation Bothe shared the 1954 Nobel Prize for Physics with the naturalized Briton (formerly German) Max Born, whose subject was statistical mechanics.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Brearley was born in poor circumstances. He received little formal education and was nurtured rather in and around the works of Thomas Firth \& Sons, where his father worked in the crucible steel-melting shop. One of his first jobs was to help in their chemical laboratory where the chief chemist, James Taylor, encouraged him and helped him fit himself for a career as a steelworks chemist.

In 1901 Brearley left Firth's to set up a laboratory at Kayser Ellison \& Co., but he returned to Firth's in 1904, when he was appointed Chief Chemist at their Riga works, and Works Manager the following year. In 1907 he returned to Sheffield to design and equip a research laboratory to serve both Firth's and John Brown \& Co. It was during his time as head of this laboratory that he made his celebrated discovery. In 1913, while seeking improved steels for rifle barrels, he used one containing 12.68 per cent chromium and 0.24 per cent carbon, in the hope that it would resist fouling and erosion. He tried to etch a specimen for microscopic examination but failed, from which he concluded that it would resist corrosion by, for example, the acids encountered in foods and cooking. The first knives made of this new steel were unsatisfactory and the 1914–18 war interrupted further research. But eventually the problems were overcome and Brearley's discovery led to a range of stainless steels with various compositions for domestic, medical and industrial uses, including the well-known "18–8" steel, with 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel.

In 1915 Brearley left the laboratory to become Works Manager, then Technical Director, at Brown Bayley's steelworks until his retirement in 1925.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Automotive engineering, Electricity, Electronics and information technology, Metallurgy, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities, Recording, Telecommunications

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He was the son of Samuel Edison, who was in the timber business. His schooling was delayed due to scarlet fever until 1855, when he was 8½ years old, but he was an avid reader. By the age of 14 he had a job as a newsboy on the railway from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles (101 km). He worked a fourteen-hour day with a stopover of five hours, which he spent in the Detroit Free Library. He also sold sweets on the train and, later, fruit and vegetables, and was soon making a profit of $20 a week. He then started two stores in Port Huron and used a spare freight car as a laboratory. He added a hand-printing press to produce 400 copies weekly of The Grand Trunk Herald, most of which he compiled and edited himself. He set himself to learn telegraphy from the station agent at Mount Clements, whose son he had saved from being run over by a freight car.

At the age of 16 he became a telegraphist at Port Huron. In 1863 he became railway telegraphist at the busy Stratford Junction of the Grand Trunk Railroad, arranging a clock with a notched wheel to give the hourly signal which was to prove that he was awake and at his post! He left hurriedly after failing to hold a train which was nearly involved in a head-on collision. He usually worked the night shift, allowing himself time for experiments during the day. His first invention was an arrangement of two Morse registers so that a high-speed input could be decoded at a slower speed. Moving from place to place he held many positions as a telegraphist. In Boston he invented an automatic vote recorder for Congress and patented it, but the idea was rejected. This was the first of a total of 1180 patents that he was to take out during his lifetime. After six years he resigned from the Western Union Company to devote all his time to invention, his next idea being an improved ticker-tape machine for stockbrokers. He developed a duplex telegraphy system, but this was turned down by the Western Union Company. He then moved to New York.

Edison found accommodation in the battery room of Law's Gold Reporting Company, sleeping in the cellar, and there his repair of a broken transmitter marked him as someone of special talents. His superior soon resigned, and he was promoted with a salary of $300 a month. Western Union paid him $40,000 for the sole rights on future improvements on the duplex telegraph, and he moved to Ward Street, Newark, New Jersey, where he employed a gathering of specialist engineers. Within a year, he married one of his employees, Mary Stilwell, when she was only 16: a daughter, Marion, was born in 1872, and two sons, Thomas and William, in 1876 and 1879, respectively.

He continued to work on the automatic telegraph, a device to send out messages faster than they could be tapped out by hand: that is, over fifty words per minute or so. An earlier machine by Alexander Bain worked at up to 400 words per minute, but was not good over long distances. Edison agreed to work on improving this feature of Bain's machine for the Automatic Telegraph Company (ATC) for $40,000. He improved it to a working speed of 500 words per minute and ran a test between Washington and New York. Hoping to sell their equipment to the Post Office in Britain, ATC sent Edison to England in 1873 to negotiate. A 500-word message was to be sent from Liverpool to London every half-hour for six hours, followed by tests on 2,200 miles (3,540 km) of cable at Greenwich. Only confused results were obtained due to induction in the cable, which lay coiled in a water tank. Edison returned to New York, where he worked on his quadruplex telegraph system, tests of which proved a success between New York and Albany in December 1874. Unfortunately, simultaneous negotiation with Western Union and ATC resulted in a lawsuit.

Alexander Graham Bell was granted a patent for a telephone in March 1876 while Edison was still working on the same idea. His improvements allowed the device to operate over a distance of hundreds of miles instead of only a few miles. Tests were carried out over the 106 miles (170 km) between New York and Philadelphia. Edison applied for a patent on the carbon-button transmitter in April 1877, Western Union agreeing to pay him $6,000 a year for the seventeen-year duration of the patent. In these years he was also working on the development of the electric lamp and on a duplicating machine which would make up to 3,000 copies from a stencil. In 1876–7 he moved from Newark to Menlo Park, twenty-four miles (39 km) from New York on the Pennsylvania Railway, near Elizabeth. He had bought a house there around which he built the premises that would become his "inventions factory". It was there that he began the use of his 200- page pocket notebooks, each of which lasted him about two weeks, so prolific were his ideas. When he died he left 3,400 of them filled with notes and sketches.

Late in 1877 he applied for a patent for a phonograph which was granted on 19 February 1878, and by the end of the year he had formed a company to manufacture this totally new product. At the time, Edison saw the device primarily as a business aid rather than for entertainment, rather as a dictating machine. In August 1878 he was granted a British patent. In July 1878 he tried to measure the heat from the solar corona at a solar eclipse viewed from Rawlins, Wyoming, but his "tasimeter" was too sensitive.

Probably his greatest achievement was "The Subdivision of the Electric Light" or the "glow bulb". He tried many materials for the filament before settling on carbon. He gave a demonstration of electric light by lighting up Menlo Park and inviting the public. Edison was, of course, faced with the problem of inventing and producing all the ancillaries which go to make up the electrical system of generation and distribution-meters, fuses, insulation, switches, cabling—even generators had to be designed and built; everything was new. He started a number of manufacturing companies to produce the various components needed.

In 1881 he built the world's largest generator, which weighed 27 tons, to light 1,200 lamps at the Paris Exhibition. It was later moved to England to be used in the world's first central power station with steam engine drive at Holborn Viaduct, London. In September 1882 he started up his Pearl Street Generating Station in New York, which led to a worldwide increase in the application of electric power, particularly for lighting. At the same time as these developments, he built a 1,300yd (1,190m) electric railway at Menlo Park.

On 9 August 1884 his wife died of typhoid. Using his telegraphic skills, he proposed to 19-year-old Mina Miller in Morse code while in the company of others on a train. He married her in February 1885 before buying a new house and estate at West Orange, New Jersey, building a new laboratory not far away in the Orange Valley.

Edison used direct current which was limited to around 250 volts. Alternating current was largely developed by George Westinghouse and Nicola Tesla, using transformers to step up the current to a higher voltage for long-distance transmission. The use of AC gradually overtook the Edison DC system.

In autumn 1888 he patented a form of cinephotography, the kinetoscope, obtaining film-stock from George Eastman. In 1893 he set up the first film studio, which was pivoted so as to catch the sun, with a hinged roof which could be raised. In 1894 kinetoscope parlours with "peep shows" were starting up in cities all over America. Competition came from the Latham Brothers with a screen-projection machine, which Edison answered with his "Vitascope", shown in New York in 1896. This showed pictures with accompanying sound, but there was some difficulty with synchronization. Edison also experimented with captions at this early date.

In 1880 he filed a patent for a magnetic ore separator, the first of nearly sixty. He bought up deposits of low-grade iron ore which had been developed in the north of New Jersey. The process was a commercial success until the discovery of iron-rich ore in Minnesota rendered it uneconomic and uncompetitive. In 1898 cement rock was discovered in New Village, west of West Orange. Edison bought the land and started cement manufacture, using kilns twice the normal length and using half as much fuel to heat them as the normal type of kiln. In 1893 he met Henry Ford, who was building his second car, at an Edison convention. This started him on the development of a battery for an electric car on which he made over 9,000 experiments. In 1903 he sold his patent for wireless telegraphy "for a song" to Guglielmo Marconi.

In 1910 Edison designed a prefabricated concrete house. In December 1914 fire destroyed three-quarters of the West Orange plant, but it was at once rebuilt, and with the threat of war Edison started to set up his own plants for making all the chemicals that he had previously been buying from Europe, such as carbolic acid, phenol, benzol, aniline dyes, etc. He was appointed President of the Navy Consulting Board, for whom, he said, he made some forty-five inventions, "but they were pigeonholed, every one of them". Thus did Edison find that the Navy did not take kindly to civilian interference.

In 1927 he started the Edison Botanic Research Company, founded with similar investment from Ford and Firestone with the object of finding a substitute for overseas-produced rubber. In the first year he tested no fewer than 3,327 possible plants, in the second year, over 1,400, eventually developing a variety of Golden Rod which grew to 14 ft (4.3 m) in height. However, all this effort and money was wasted, due to the discovery of synthetic rubber.

In October 1929 he was present at Henry Ford's opening of his Dearborn Museum to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the incandescent lamp, including a replica of the Menlo Park laboratory. He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and was elected to the American Academy of Sciences. He died in 1931 at his home, Glenmont; throughout the USA, lights were dimmed temporarily on the day of his funeral.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Peter Ewart, the youngest of six sons, was born at Traquair manse, where his father was a clergyman in the Church of Scotland. He was educated at the Free School, Dumfries, and in 1782 spent a year at Edinburgh University. He followed this with an apprenticeship under John Rennie at Musselburgh before moving south in 1785 to help Rennie erect the Albion corn mill in London. This brought him into contact with Boulton \& Watt, and in 1788 he went to Birmingham to erect a waterwheel and other machinery in the Soho Manufactory. In 1789 he was sent to Manchester to install a steam engine for Peter Drinkwater and thus his long connection with the city began. In 1790 Ewart took up residence in Manchester as Boulton \& Watt's representative. Amongst other engines, he installed one for Samuel Oldknow at Stockport. In 1792 he became a partner with Oldknow in his cotton-spinning business, but because of financial difficulties he moved back to Birmingham in 1795 to help erect the machines in the new Soho Foundry. He was soon back in Manchester in partnership with Samuel Greg at Quarry Bank Mill, Styal, where he was responsible for developing the water power, installing a steam engine, and being concerned with the spinning machinery and, later, gas lighting at Greg's other mills.

In 1798, Ewart devised an automatic expansion-gear for steam engines, but steam pressures at the time were too low for such a device to be effective. His grasp of the theory of steam power is shown by his paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1808, On the Measure of Moving Force. In 1813 he patented a power loom to be worked by the pressure of steam or compressed air. In 1824 Charles Babbage consulted him about automatic looms. His interest in textiles continued until at least 1833, when he obtained a patent for a self-acting spinning mule, which was, however, outclassed by the more successful one invented by Richard Roberts. Ewart gave much help and advice to others. The development of the machine tools at Boulton \& Watt's Soho Foundry has been mentioned already. He also helped James Watt with his machine for copying sculptures. While he continued to run his own textile mill, Ewart was also in partnership with Charles Macintosh, the pioneer of rubber-coated cloth. He was involved with William Fairbairn concerning steam engines for the boats that Fairbairn was building in Manchester, and it was through Ewart that Eaton Hodgkinson was introduced to Fairbairn and so made the tests and calculations for the tubes for the Britannia Railway Bridge across the Menai Straits. Ewart was involved with the launching of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway as he was a director of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce at the time.

In 1835 he uprooted himself from Manchester and became the first Chief Engineer for the Royal Navy, assuming responsibility for the steamboats, which by 1837 numbered 227 in service. He set up repair facilities and planned workshops for overhauling engines at Woolwich Dockyard, the first establishment of its type. It was here that he was killed in an accident when a chain broke while he was supervising the lifting of a large boiler. Engineering was Ewart's life, and it is possible to give only a brief account of his varied interests and connections here.

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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Anthony Fokker was born in Java, where his Dutch father had a coffee plantation. The family returned to the Netherlands and, after schooling, young Anthony went to Germany to study aeronautics. With the aid of a friend he built his first aeroplane, the Spin, in 1910: this was a monoplane capable of short hops. By 1911 Fokker had improved the Spin and gained a pilot's licence. In 1912 he set up a company called Fokker Aeroplanbau at Johannistal, outside Berlin, and a series of monoplanes followed.

When war broke out in 1914 Fokker offered his designs to both sides, and the Germans accepted them. His E I monoplane of 1915 caused a sensation with its manoeuvrability and forward-firing machine gun. Fokker and his collaborators improved on the French deflector system introduced by Raymond Saulnier by fitting an interrupter gear which synchronized the machine gun to fire between the blades of the rotating propeller. The Fokker Dr I triplane and D VII biplane were also outstanding German fighters of the First World War. Fokker's designs were often the work of an employee who received little credit: nevertheless, Fokker was a gifted pilot and a great organizer. After the war, Fokker moved back to the Netherlands and set up the Fokker Aircraft Works in Amsterdam. In 1922, however, he emigrated to the USA and established the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation in New Jersey. His first significant success there came the following year when one of his T-2 monoplanes became the first aircraft to fly non-stop across the USA, from New York to San Diego. He developed a series of civil aircraft using the well-proven method of construction he used for his fighters: fuselages made from steel tubes and thick, robust wooden wings. Of these, probably the most famous was the F VII/3m, a high-wing monoplane with three engines and capable of carrying about ten passengers. From 1925 the F VII/3m airliner was used worldwide and made many record-breaking flights, such as Lieutenant-Commander Richard Byrd's first flight over the North Pole in 1926 and Charles Kingsford-Smith's first transpacific flight in 1928. By this time Fokker had lost interest in military aircraft and had begun to see flight as a means of speeding up global communications and bringing people together. His last years were spent in realizing this dream, and this was reflected in his concentration on the design and production of passenger aircraft.

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JDS / CM

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Wöhler, the son of a schoolteacher, was born at Soltau on the Luneburg Heath and received his early education at his father's school, where his mathematical abilities soon became apparent. He completed his studies at the Technical High School, Hannover.

In 1840 he obtained a position at the Borsig Engineering Works in Berlin and acquired there much valuable experience in railway technology. He trained as an engine driver in Belgium and in 1843 was appointed as an engineer to the first Hannoverian Railway, then being constructed between Hannover and Lehrte. In 1847 he became Chief Superintendent of rolling stock on the Lower Silesian-Brandenhurg Railway, where his technical abilities influenced the Prussian Minister of Commerce to appoint him to a commission set up to investigate the reasons for the unusually high incidence of axle failures then being encountered on the railways. This was in 1852, and by 1854, when the Brandenburg line had been nationalized, Wöhler had already embarked on the long, systematic programme of mechanical testing which eventually provided him with a clear insight into the process of what is now referred to as "fatigue failure". He concentrated initially on the behaviour of machined iron and steel specimens subjected to fluctuating direct, bending and torsional stresses that were imposed by testing machines of his own design.

Although Wöhler was not the first investigator in this area, he was the first to recognize the state of "fatigue" induced in metals by the repeated application of cycles of stress at levels well below those that would cause immediate failure. His method of plotting the fatigue stress amplitude "S" against the number of stress cycles necessary to cause failure "N" yielded the well-known S-N curve which described very precisely the susceptibility to fatigue failure of the material concerned. Engineers were thus provided with an invaluable testing technique that is still widely used in the 1990s.

Between 1851 and 1898 Wöhler published forty-two papers in German technical journals, although the importance of his work was not initially fully appreciated in other countries. A display of some of his fracture fatigue specimens at the Paris Exposition in 1867, however, stimulated a short review of his work in Engineering in London. Four years later, in 1871, Engineering published a series of nine articles which described Wöhler's findings in considerable detail and brought them to the attention of engineers. Wöhler became a member of the newly created management board of the Imperial German Railways in 1874, an appointment that he retained until 1889. He is also remembered for his derivation in 1855 of a formula for calculating the deflections under load of lattice girders, plate girders, and other continuous beams resting on more than two supports. This "Three Moments" theorem appeared two years before Clapeyron independently advanced the same expression. Wöhler's other major contribution to bridge design was to use rollers at one end to allow for thermal expansion and contraction.

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